Jump to content

Red meat

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses, see Red meat (disambiguation).

Thinly sliced raw beef is red.
Roast beef is a darker brown color.

In gastronomy, red meat is commonly red when raw (and a dark color after it is cooked), in contrast to white meat, which is pale in color before (and after) cooking.[1][2] In culinary terms, only flesh from mammals or fowl (not fish) is classified as red or white.[3][4] In nutritional science, red meat is defined as any meat that has more of the protein myoglobin than white meat. White meat is defined as non-dark meat from fish or chicken (excluding the leg or thigh, which is called dark meat).

Regular consumption of red meat, both unprocessed and especially processed types, has been associated with negative health outcomes.

Definition

[edit]
Concentration of myoglobin by percentage of mass
Name Myoglobin USDA category
Old beef 1.50 – 2.00%[5] Red meat[6]
Beef 0.40 – 1.00%[5] Red meat[6]
Pork 0.10 – 0.30%[5] Red meat[6]
Veal 0.10 – 0.30%[5] Red meat[6]
Turkey thigh 0.25 – 0.30%[5] Dark meat
Chicken thigh 0.18 – 0.20%[5] Dark meat
Turkey breast 0.008%[7] White meat
Chicken breast 0.005%[5] White meat[6]
Cooked duck with potatoes, showing the red color of the meat

Under the culinary definition, the meat from adult or "gamey" mammals (for example, beef, horse, mutton, venison, boar, hare) is red meat, while that from young mammals (rabbit, veal, lamb) is white although sometimes rabbit meat is considered red meat. Poultry is white, excluding certain birds such as ostriches.[8] Most cuts of pork are red, others are white.[9] Game is sometimes put in a separate category altogether (French: viandes noires — "dark meats").[4] Some meats (lamb, pork) are classified differently by different writers.

According to the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), all meats obtained from mammals (regardless of cut or age) are red meats because they contain more myoglobin, which gives them their red color,[10] than fish or white meat (but not necessarily dark meat)[5] from chicken.[6][11] The USDA also classifies ratites, such as ostriches, emus, and rhea, as red meat.[12] Some cuts of pork are considered white under the culinary definition, but all pork is considered red meat in nutritional studies. The National Pork Board has positioned it as "the other white meat", profiting from the ambiguity to suggest that pork has the nutritional properties of white meat, which is considered more healthful.[13][14]

Nutrition

[edit]

Red meat contains large amounts of iron, creatine, minerals such as zinc and phosphorus, and B-vitamins: (niacin, vitamin B12, thiamin and riboflavin).[15] Red meat is a source of lipoic acid.

Red meat contains small amounts of vitamin D.[16] Offal such as liver contains much higher quantities than other parts of the animal.[17]

In 2011, the USDA launched MyPlate, which did not distinguish between kinds of meat, but did recommend eating at least 8 oz (230 g) of fish each week.[18][19] In 2011, the Harvard School of Public Health launched the Healthy Eating Plate in part because of the perceived inadequacies of the USDA's recommendations.[18] The Healthy Eating Plate encourages consumers to avoid processed meat and limit red meat consumption to twice a week because of links to heart disease, diabetes, and colon cancer. To replace these meats it recommends consuming fish, poultry, beans, or nuts.[18]

Health effects

[edit]
See also: Beef § Health concerns, and Meat § Health effects

Overall, diets high in red and processed meats are associated with an increased risk of diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer (particularly colorectal cancer), and all-cause mortality.[20][21][22][23] These associations are strongest for processed meat, which is meat that has undergone salting, curing, fermentation, smoking, or other processes to enhance flavor or improve preservation, such as bacon, ham, salami, pepperoni, hot dogs, and some sausages.[24] Also, meat that is cooked longer and at higher temperatures is associated with a 4.62 times greater risk of breast cancer compared with rare or medium-done meat.[25][26]

A 2021 umbrella review reported an increase of 11–51% risk of multiple cancer per 100g/d increment of red meat, and an increase of 8-72% risk of multiple cancer per 50g/d increment of processed meat.[27]

A 2022 study challenged the dose-response relationship using a newly developed burden of proof risk function (BPRF). It found weak evidence available regarding whether eating red meat increases the risk of death. The authors conclude that the quality of the available evidence is insufficient to make stronger or more conclusive recommendations regarding the health effects of eating red meat.[28] However, the BPRF approach has been criticised for being overly simplistic.[29]

Cancer

[edit]

The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) of the World Health Organization (WHO) classifies processed meat as carcinogenic to humans (Group 1), based on "sufficient evidence in humans that the consumption of processed meat causes colorectal cancer."[30] Unprocessed red meat is categorised as "probably carcinogenic to humans (Group 2A), based on limited evidence that the consumption of red meat causes cancer in humans and strong mechanistic evidence supporting a carcinogenic effect."[24][31] Positive associations have also been observed between red meat consumption and increased risks of pancreatic cancer and prostate cancer but the link is not as clear.[24] The American Cancer Society have stated "evidence that red and processed meats increase cancer risk has existed for decades, and many health organizations recommend limiting or avoiding these foods."[32]

The American Institute for Cancer Research, Cancer Research UK and World Cancer Research Fund International have stated there is strong evidence that consumption of processed red meat is a cause of colorectal cancer and there is probable evidence that unprocessed red meat is a cause of cancer.[33][34][35] Put in perspective in the UK, adults eating processed and red meat at 79g per day on average had a 32% increased risk of colorectal cancer compared to those eating less than 11g per day.[36]

A 2023 review found that high consumption of red meat is associated with increased risk of gastrointestinal cancer.[37]

Mechanisms

[edit]

Heme iron in red meat has been associated with increased colorectal cancer risk.[38] The American Institute for Cancer Research and World Cancer Research Fund have commented that "haem iron, which is present at high levels in red meat, has been shown to promote colorectal tumorigenesis by stimulating the endogenous formation of carcinogenic N-nitroso compound."[39]

Meat with a dark exterior, common in high temperature cooking

A 2017 literature review indicated there are numerous potential carcinogens of colorectal tissue in red meat, particularly those in processed red meat products, such as N-nitroso compounds, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), and heterocyclic amines (HCAs).[40] Cooking meat with "high-temperature methods, such as pan frying or grilling directly over an open flame", also causes formation of PAHs and HCAs.[41]

Cardiovascular disease and stroke

[edit]
See also: Saturated fat and cardiovascular disease

Red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease, high blood pressure and stroke.[42][43] Factors associated with increased stroke risk from consuming red meat include saturated fats that increase levels of blood cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, triglycerides, and heme iron, which may precipitate atherogenesis in cerebral arteries, leading to stroke.[44]

In 2020, the National Heart Foundation of New Zealand Expert Nutrition Policy (ENP) issued a position statement that concluded that high consumption of red meat increases risk of heart disease and stroke by 16% therefore one should aim to reduce consumption of red meat below 350g per week and replace meat with plant sources of protein.[42][45]

Diabetes

[edit]

A 2022 umbrella review found that consuming an additional 100g of red meat per day was associated with a 17% increased risk of diabetes.[46] Another review found that red meat consumption is associated with an increased risk of diabetes.[47]

A 2017 review found that daily consumption of 85 grams of red meat and 35 grams of processed red meat products by European and American consumers increased their risk of type 2 diabetes by 18–36%, while a diet of abstinence of red meat consuming whole grains, vegetables, fruits, and dairy was associated with an 81% reduced risk of diabetes.[48] One study estimated that "substitutions of one serving of nuts, low-fat dairy, and whole grains per day for one serving of red meat per day were associated with a 16–35% lower risk of type 2 diabetes".[49]

A 2023 review found that both processed and unprocessed red meat consumption increase type 2 diabetes risk.[50]

The European Association for the Study of Diabetes recommends that diabetics minimise the consumption of red meat.[51]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ "Red Meat". thefreedictionary.com.
  2. ^ "White Meat". thefreedictionary.com.
  3. ^ Reinagel M (2 January 2013). "Color Confusion: Identifying Red Meat and White Meat". Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Archived from the original on 30 December 2016. Retrieved 29 April 2017.
  4. ^ a b Larousse Gastronomique, first edition
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Penner KP, Clarke MP (September 1990). "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet". Iowa State Animal Science. Archived from the original on 24 March 2009. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
  6. ^ a b c d e f "USDA-Safety of Fresh Pork...from Farm to Table". Fsis.usda.gov. 16 May 2008. Archived from the original on 18 September 2013. Retrieved 16 September 2009.
  7. ^ Çelen, Mehmet Fatih; Söğüt, Bünyamin; Zorba, Ömer; Demirulus, Hüsrev; Tekeli, Ahmet (August 2016). "Comparison of normal and PSE turkey breast meat for chemical composition, pH, color, myoglobin, and drip loss". Revista Brasileira de Zootecnia. 45 (8): 441–444. doi:10.1590/S1806-92902016000800003. ISSN 1516-3598.
  8. ^ "Are ratites "red" or "white" meat?". AskUSDA. US Department of Agriculture. 17 July 2019.
  9. ^ Larousse Gastronomique, 1961, s.v. pork
  10. ^ "The color of meat depends on myoglobin: Part 1". MSU Extension. 10 October 2014. Retrieved 24 August 2023.
  11. ^ Keeton, Jimmy T.; Dikeman, Michael E. (October 2017). "'Red' and 'white' meats—terms that lead to confusion". Animal Frontiers. 7 (4): 29–33. doi:10.2527/af.2017.0440.
  12. ^ "How do you cook ratites? - Ask USDA". AskUSDA.gov. Retrieved 31 July 2024.
  13. ^ Dougherty PH (15 January 1987). "Dressing Pork for Success". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017.
  14. ^ Hall T (13 November 1991). "And This Little Piggy Is Now on the Menu". The New York Times. Archived from the original on 14 February 2017.
  15. ^ "Red Meats: Nutrient Contributions to the Diet" (PDF). Kansas State University Agricultural Experiment Station and Cooperative Extension Service. September 1990. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2006.
  16. ^ Williams PG (September 2007). "Nutritional composition of red meat". University of Wollongong. Archived from the original on 10 March 2011.
  17. ^ Schmid A, Walther B (July 2013). "Natural vitamin D content in animal products". Advances in Nutrition. 4 (4): 453–62. doi:10.3945/an.113.003780. PMC 3941824. PMID 23858093.
  18. ^ a b c "Food Pyramids: What Should You Really Eat". Harvard School of Public Health. 2012. Archived from the original on 16 April 2009.
  19. ^ "MyPlate Protein foods". USDA. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013.
  20. ^ Abete, Itziar; Romaguera, Dora; Vieira, Ana Rita; Munain, Adolfo Lopez de; Norat, Teresa (September 2014). "Association between total, processed, red and white meat consumption and all-cause, CVD and IHD mortality: a meta-analysis of cohort studies". British Journal of Nutrition. 112 (5): 762–775. doi:10.1017/S000711451400124X. ISSN 0007-1145. PMID 24932617. S2CID 14401281.
  21. ^ Neuenschwander, Manuela; Ballon, Aurélie; Weber, Katharina S.; Norat, Teresa; Aune, Dagfinn; Schwingshackl, Lukas; Schlesinger, Sabrina (3 July 2019). "Role of diet in type 2 diabetes incidence: umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective observational studies". BMJ. 366: l2368. doi:10.1136/bmj.l2368. ISSN 0959-8138. PMC 6607211. PMID 31270064.
  22. ^ Mozaffarian, Dariush (12 January 2016). "Dietary and Policy Priorities for Cardiovascular Disease, Diabetes, and Obesity". Circulation. 133 (2): 187–225. doi:10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.115.018585. PMC 4814348. PMID 26746178.
  23. ^ Qian, Frank; Riddle, Matthew C.; Wylie-Rosett, Judith; Hu, Frank B. (2020). "Red and Processed Meats and Health Risks: How Strong is the Evidence?". Diabetes Care. 43 (2): 265–271. doi:10.2337/dci19-0063. PMC 6971786. PMID 31959642.
  24. ^ a b c International Agency for Research on Cancer (26 October 2015), IARC Monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat (PDF), archived (PDF) from the original on 10 November 2015
  25. ^ Zheng, W.; Gustafson, D. R.; Sinha, R.; Cerhan, J. R.; Moore, D.; Hong, C. P.; Anderson, K. E.; Kushi, L. H.; Sellers, T. A.; Folsom, A. R. (18 November 1998). "Well-done meat intake and the risk of breast cancer". Journal of the National Cancer Institute. 90 (22): 1724–1729. doi:10.1093/jnci/90.22.1724. ISSN 0027-8874. PMID 9827527.
  26. ^ Farvid, Maryam S.; Sidahmed, Elkhansa; Spence, Nicholas D.; Mante Angua, Kingsly; Rosner, Bernard A.; Barnett, Junaidah B. (1 September 2021). "Consumption of red meat and processed meat and cancer incidence: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". European Journal of Epidemiology. 36 (9): 937–951. doi:10.1007/s10654-021-00741-9. ISSN 1573-7284. PMID 34455534.
  27. ^ Huang Y, Cao D, Chen Z, Chen B, Li J, Guo J, Dong Q, Liu L, Wei Q (September 2021). "Red and processed meat consumption and cancer outcomes: Umbrella review". Food Chem (Review). 356: 129697. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.129697. PMID 33838606.
  28. ^ Lescinsky H, Afshin A, Ashbaugh C, Bisignano C, Brauer M, et al. (October 2022). "Health effects associated with consumption of unprocessed red meat: a Burden of Proof study". Nat Med (Systematic review). 28 (10): 2075–2082. doi:10.1038/s41591-022-01968-z. PMC 9556326. PMID 36216940.
  29. ^ Lewis, Tanya. "New System Ranks Evidence for Health Risks of Eating Red Meat, Smoking, and More—But Critics Say It's Overly Simplistic". Scientific American. Retrieved 21 December 2022.
  30. ^ "Q&A on the carcinogenicity of the consumption of red meat and processed meat". World Health Organization. 1 October 2015. Retrieved 7 August 2019.
  31. ^ "Press release: IARC monographs evaluate consumption of red meat and processed meat" (PDF). International Agency for Research on Cancer, World Health Organization. 15 October 2015. Retrieved 26 October 2015.
  32. ^ Rock, Cheryl L.; Thomson, Cynthia; Gansler, Ted; Gapstur, Susan M.; McCullough, Marjorie L.; Patel, Alpa V.; Andrews, Kimberly S.; Bandera, Elisa V.; Spees, Colleen K.; Robien, Kimberly; Hartman, Sheri; Sullivan, Kristen; Grant, Barbara L.; Hamilton, Kathryn K.; Kushi, Lawrence H.; Caan, Bette J.; Kibbe, Debra; Black, Jessica Donze; Wiedt, Tracy L.; McMahon, Catherine; Sloan, Kirsten; Doyle, Colleen (2020). "American Cancer Society guideline for diet and physical activity for cancer prevention". CA. 70 (4): 245–271. doi:10.3322/caac.21591. PMID 32515498. S2CID 219550658.
  33. ^ "Does eating processed and red meat cause cancer?". Cancer Research UK. 25 June 2019. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  34. ^ "Red Meat (Beef, Pork, Lamb): Increases Risk of Colorectal Cancer". American Institute for Cancer Research. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  35. ^ "Limit red and processed meat". WCRF International. Retrieved 30 December 2022.
  36. ^ "Bacon, salami and sausages: How does processed and red meat cause cancer and how much matters?". news.cancerresearchuk.org. Retrieved 20 June 2023.
  37. ^ Di, Yan; Ding, Lei; Gao, Luying; Haung, Hongya (2023). "Association of meat consumption with the risk of gastrointestinal cancers: a systematic review and meta-analysis". BMC Cancer. 23 (1): 782. doi:10.1186/s12885-023-11218-1. PMC 10463360. PMID 37612616.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  38. ^ Bastide, N. M.; Pierre, F. H.; Corpet, D. E. (2011). "Heme iron from meat and risk of colorectal cancer: a meta-analysis and a review of the mechanisms involved" (PDF). Cancer Prev. Res. 4 (2): 177–184. doi:10.1158/1940-6207.CAPR-10-0113. PMID 21209396. S2CID 4951579. Archived (PDF) from the original on 25 September 2015.
  39. ^ "Meat, fish and dairy products and the risk of cancer". wcrf.org. Retrieved 10 April 2023.
  40. ^ Jeyakumar A, Dissabandara L, Gopalan V (April 2017). "A critical overview on the biological and molecular features of red and processed meat in colorectal carcinogenesis". Journal of Gastroenterology. 52 (4): 407–418. doi:10.1007/s00535-016-1294-x. PMID 27913919. S2CID 20865644.
  41. ^ "Chemicals in Meat Cooked at High Temperatures and Cancer Risk". National Cancer Institute. 2018. Archived from the original on 6 November 2011.
  42. ^ a b "Red meat and poultry". assets.heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  43. ^ Zhang X, Liang S, Chen X, Yang J, Zhou Y, Du L, Li K (December 2022). "Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review". Br J Nutr. 130 (3): 484–494. doi:10.1017/S0007114522003415. PMID 36545687.
  44. ^ Kim K, Hyeon J, Lee SA, Kwon SO, Lee H, Keum N, et al. (August 2017). "Role of Total, Red, Processed, and White Meat Consumption in Stroke Incidence and Mortality: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Prospective Cohort Studies". Journal of the American Heart Association. 6 (9): e005983. doi:10.1161/jaha.117.005983. PMC 5634267. PMID 28855166.
  45. ^ "Is meat good for you?". heartfoundation.org.nz. Retrieved 25 October 2023.
  46. ^ Zhang, Xingxia; Liang, Shiqi; Chen, Xinrong; Yang, Jie; Zhou, Yong; Du, Liang; Li, Ka (n.d.). "Red/processed meat consumption and noncancer-related outcomes in humans: Umbrella review". British Journal of Nutrition. 130 (3): 484–494. doi:10.1017/S0007114522003415. ISSN 0007-1145. PMID 36545687.
  47. ^ Giosuè A, Calabrese I, Riccardi G, Vaccaro O, Vitale M (September 2022). "Consumption of different animal-based foods and risk of type 2 diabetes: An umbrella review of meta-analyses of prospective studies". Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice. 191: 110071. doi:10.1016/j.diabres.2022.110071. PMID 36067917. S2CID 252107061.
  48. ^ Schwingshackl L, Hoffmann G, Lampousi AM, Knüppel S, Iqbal K, Schwedhelm C, et al. (May 2017). "Food groups and risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus: a systematic review and meta-analysis of prospective studies". European Journal of Epidemiology. 32 (5): 363–375. doi:10.1007/s10654-017-0246-y. PMC 5506108. PMID 28397016.
  49. ^ Pan A, Sun Q, Bernstein AM, Schulze MB, Manson JE, Willett WC, Hu FB (October 2011). "Red meat consumption and risk of type 2 diabetes: 3 cohorts of US adults and an updated meta-analysis". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 94 (4): 1088–96. doi:10.3945/ajcn.111.018978. PMC 3173026. PMID 21831992.
  50. ^ Wenming Shi, Xin Huang, C Mary Schooling, Jie V Zhao (2023). "Red meat consumption, cardiovascular diseases, and diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis". European Heart Journal. 44 (28): 2626–2635. doi:10.1093/eurheartj/ehad336. PMID 37264855.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  51. ^ Reynolds, Andrew; Aas, Anne-Marie; Axelsen, Mette; Churuangsuk, Chaitong (2023). "Evidence-based European recommendations for the dietary management of diabetes". Diabetologia. 66 (6): 965–985. doi:10.1007/s00125-023-05894-8. PMID 37069434.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
[edit]
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Red_meat&oldid=1265213236"